Forms of Colonial Resistance

Colonial resistance manifested in numerous ways:

1. Armed struggles - From the Haitian Revolution to the Mau Mau uprising in Kenya
2. Passive resistance - Gandhi's satyagraha in India
3. Cultural resistance - Preservation of indigenous languages, religions, and traditions
4. Economic resistance - Boycotts, labor strikes, and alternative economic systems
5. Intellectual resistance - Anti-colonial writing, nationalist historiography, and education

Key Historical Resistance Movements

The Americas

• Haitian Revolution (1791-1804): The first successful slave rebellion that established Haiti as the first Black republic
• Latin American independence movements led by Simón Bolívar, José de San Martín, and others
• Indigenous resistance from figures like Túpac Amaru II in Peru

Africa

• Algeria's struggle against France (1954-1962)
• Kenya's Mau Mau uprising against British rule
• Ghana's independence movement led by Kwame Nkrumah
• South African resistance to apartheid

Asia

• Indian independence movement with diverse approaches from Gandhi's non-violence to Subhas Chandra Bose's militant stance
• Vietnamese resistance against French colonialism and later American intervention
• Indonesian independence struggle against Dutch rule

Theoretical Frameworks

Several important theoretical frameworks help us understand colonial resistance:

• Frantz Fanon's analysis of violence, decolonization, and psychological impacts in works like "The Wretched of the Earth"
• Edward Said's concept of Orientalism and cultural imperialism
• Postcolonial theory as developed by scholars like Gayatri Spivak and Homi Bhabha

Why Colonial Resistance Movements Emerged

Colonial resistance movements emerged for multiple interconnected reasons:

Economic Exploitation

Colonial powers systematically extracted resources, labor, and wealth from colonized territories:

• Resource extraction: Minerals, agricultural products, and raw materials were taken with minimal compensation
• Exploitative labor practices: Forced labor, slavery, and indentured servitude
• Unfair trade systems: Colonial subjects were forced to sell raw materials cheaply and buy manufactured goods at inflated prices
• Land appropriation: Indigenous populations lost ancestral lands to colonizers

Political Disenfranchisement

Colonized peoples had little to no political voice:

• Lack of representation: Colonial subjects were governed without meaningful consent
• Discriminatory legal systems: Different laws applied to colonizers and the colonized
• Arbitrary governance: Colonial authorities could impose policies without local input
• Suppression of traditional leadership: Indigenous governance structures were dismantled

Cultural Subjugation

Colonial powers often attempted to erase or marginalize indigenous cultures:

• Missionary activities: Indigenous religions were suppressed in favor of Christianity
• Educational colonization: Colonial languages and perspectives dominated education
• Cultural hierarchies: Indigenous cultural practices were stigmatized as "primitive"
• Historical erasure: Colonial narratives displaced indigenous historical understandings

Violence and Repression

Colonial rule was frequently maintained through force:

• Military occupation: Armed forces suppressed dissent
• Punitive expeditions: Collective punishment for resistance
• Massacres and atrocities: Violence against civilians to maintain control
• Police states: Surveillance and informant networks to identify resistance

Rising Nationalist Consciousness

Several factors contributed to growing nationalist awareness:

• Education: Even colonial education sometimes exposed people to ideas of liberty and rights
• World events: World Wars showed the vulnerability of European powers
• Diaspora connections: Communities abroad shared revolutionary ideas
• Intellectual frameworks: Emerging theories of nationalism provided conceptual tools

Inspiration from Other Movements

Resistance movements learned from and inspired each other:

• Transnational communication: News of successful resistance spread across borders
• Shared tactics: Movements adopted and adapted strategies that worked elsewhere
• International solidarity: Support networks developed between different anti-colonial struggles
• Ideological frameworks: Ideas like pan-Africanism or pan-Asianism connected struggles

The combination of these factors created the conditions for widespread resistance against colonial rule, with each region developing its own particular forms of resistance based on local conditions, histories, and cultural contexts.

The Financial Dimensions of Colonial Resistance

The financial aspects of colonialism were central to both colonial exploitation and resistance movements. Hereby below how financial factors contributed to colonial resistance:

Extractive Economic Systems

Colonial powers established economic systems designed to extract wealth:

• Taxation without representation: Heavy, often arbitrary taxes imposed on colonized populations
• Export-focused economies: Colonial territories forced to produce cash crops and raw materials rather than developing diverse economies
• Banking and credit systems: European-controlled financial institutions that systematically disadvantaged local businesses
• Currency manipulation: Introduction of colonial currencies that facilitated wealth transfer to the imperial center

Financial Motivation for Resistance

Many resistance movements were directly sparked by financial grievances:

• Tax revolts: Like the Hut Tax War in Sierra Leone (1898) or the Bambatha Rebellion in South Africa (1906)
• Land dispossession resistance: When colonial companies or settlers seized land, triggering organized opposition
• Worker strikes: Labor movements against exploitative wages and conditions in colonial enterprises
• Market protests: Demonstrations against inflated prices of essential goods or agricultural produce

Funding Resistance Movements

Resistance required financial resources:

• Diaspora funding: Expatriate communities in Europe, America, or elsewhere funded independence movements
• Alternative economic networks: Shadow economies that operated outside colonial control
• Strategic fundraising: Political organizations like the Indian National Congress collected membership fees and donations
• International support: Some movements received financial backing from sympathetic nations (e.g., USSR support for various movements)

Economic Boycotts as Resistance

Financial resistance often took the form of boycotts:

• Gandhi's Swadeshi movement: Boycotting British goods in favor of Indian-made products
• Non-cooperation campaigns: Refusing to participate in colonial economic systems
• Strategic defaults: Collective refusal to pay colonial taxes or debts
• Alternative currencies: Some communities developed local exchange systems outside colonial currency

Post-Independence Financial Struggles

Financial dimensions continued after formal independence:

• Neocolonialism: Continued economic control through debt, trade dependencies, and multinational corporations
• Structural adjustment programs: IMF and World Bank policies that often reproduced colonial economic patterns
• Resource nationalism: Movements to reclaim control of natural resources (like oil nationalization in Iran, Venezuela, etc.)
• Debt resistance: Campaigns against "odious debt" inherited from colonial administrations

Case Studies

1. Caribbean plantation economies: Slave rebellions were directly linked to the brutally exploitative plantation system designed to produce sugar wealth for European powers
2. Congo Free State: King Leopold II's rubber extraction regime (which used mutilation as punishment for failing quotas) sparked resistance movements
3. Maji Maji Rebellion (German East Africa): Triggered partly by forced cotton cultivation that disrupted food production
4. Indian economic nationalism: Developed alternative economic theories and practices to challenge British financial control

The financial dimensions of colonialism weren't just side effects—they were often the primary purpose of colonial enterprise, making economic liberation a central goal of many resistance movements.

Cultural Dimensions of Colonial Resistance

Cultural resistance was a powerful and enduring form of anti-colonial struggle that operated alongside political and economic resistance. Here's how culture became both a battleground and a weapon in anti-colonial movements:

Colonial Cultural Domination

Colonial powers attempted to impose their cultures through several mechanisms:

• Educational systems that prioritized European languages, history, and values
• Religious conversion efforts that denigrated indigenous spiritual practices
• "Civilizing missions" that framed indigenous cultures as backward or primitive
• Legal prohibitions against cultural practices deemed threatening or "uncivilized"
• Implementation of European aesthetic standards in art, architecture, and literature

Forms of Cultural Resistance

In response, colonized peoples developed various strategies of cultural resistance:

Preservation of Indigenous Knowledge

• Secret maintenance of traditions, languages, and practices
• Oral histories kept alive despite official historical narratives
• Indigenous education systems operating parallel to colonial schools
• Protection of sacred sites, objects, and ceremonies

Syncretism and Adaptation

• Religious syncretism that merged indigenous and imposed belief systems
• Artistic fusion that incorporated traditional elements into new forms
• Language adaptation that preserved indigenous concepts within colonial languages
• Reinterpreting colonial institutions through indigenous frameworks

Cultural Reclamation

• Language revival movements
• Historical research recovering pre-colonial achievements
• Traditional arts and crafts revitalization
• Indigenous literature that challenged colonial narratives

Revolutionary Cultural Expressions

• Protest music that galvanized resistance movements
• Political theater and performance that mocked colonial authority
• Anti-colonial literature that imagined liberation
• Satirical art undermining colonial mythology

Notable Examples of Cultural Resistance

Africa

• Négritude movement: Literary and ideological framework celebrating African cultural values
• African mask adaptations: Traditional masks incorporated colonial figures to critique power
• Mau Mau oathing ceremonies: Traditional ritual practices used to build solidarity

Asia

• Hindi literature revival in India challenging English dominance
• Vietnamese water puppetry incorporating anti-colonial themes
• Islamic revivalist movements as cultural counterforce to Western influence

Americas

• Haitian Vodou as spiritual resistance that blended African traditions
• Native American Ghost Dance movement predicting the end of colonization
• Carnival traditions in the Caribbean that inverted colonial hierarchies

Oceania

• Haka performances in Māori resistance
• Pacific Islander navigation knowledge preserved despite colonial disruption
• Dreamtime storytelling maintained despite missionary prohibitions

Cultural Decolonization Theorists

Several key thinkers developed frameworks for understanding cultural resistance:

• Frantz Fanon: Analyzed psychological impacts of colonialism and cultural alienation
• Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o: Advocated "decolonizing the mind" through indigenous language use
• Audre Lorde: Explored how poetry and creative expression could challenge colonial thought
• Homi Bhabha: Developed concepts of mimicry and hybridity in colonial cultural relations

Cultural resistance was often effective because it could operate beneath the radar of colonial authority while sustaining community identity and providing psychological resources for more overt forms of resistance. It also ensured that even when political independence was achieved, there remained a cultural foundation upon which to build truly decolonized societies.

Land and Ecology in Colonial Resistance

The struggle over land and ecological systems was fundamental to colonial conflicts and resistance movements worldwide. This dimension reveals how colonization was not just about controlling people, but also about reshaping environments and resource relationships.

Colonial Transformation of Land and Ecology

Colonial powers fundamentally altered indigenous relationships with land:

• Land appropriation: Massive transfers of land from indigenous control to colonial ownership
• Plantation agriculture: Conversion of diverse ecosystems to monoculture cash crops
• Resource extraction: Mining, logging, and other activities that depleted natural resources
• Settlement patterns: Forced relocations, reservations, and disruption of traditional movement
• Legal frameworks: Introduction of European property concepts that clashed with indigenous understandings

Indigenous Land-Based Resistance

Colonized peoples resisted these transformations in various ways:

Direct Defense of Territory

• Armed resistance against land seizures and encroachment
• Boundary maintenance through physical markers and patrols
• Occupation of ancestral territories despite colonial claims
• Strategic alliances with other groups to protect land bases

Alternative Land Relations

• Maintenance of traditional land management despite colonial prohibitions
• Secret continuation of seasonal movements and harvesting practices
• Indigenous mapping to document traditional territories
• Communal land holdings that challenged individual property regimes

Ecological Knowledge as Resistance

• Preservation of medicinal knowledge tied to specific ecosystems
• Continuation of sustainable harvesting practices
• Protection of sacred natural sites
• Traditional fire management and other ecological interventions

Notable Land-Based Resistance Movements

Americas

• Mapuche resistance in Chile and Argentina defending ancestral territories
• Standing Rock protests against oil pipeline development on indigenous lands
• Zapatista movement fighting for communal land rights in Mexico

Africa

• Mau Mau uprising in Kenya directly connected to British land appropriation
• Anti-conservation movements against colonial-imposed nature reserves that excluded indigenous use
• Pastoral communities' resistance to forced sedentarization

Asia and Oceania

• Karen resistance in Burma/Myanmar maintaining traditional forest relationships
• Maori land protests and legal challenges in New Zealand
• Philippine indigenous movements against mining and deforestation

Ecological Consequences of Colonialism

Colonial ecological transformations sparked resistance because they often led to:

• Famines from disruption of traditional food systems
• Environmental degradation through unsustainable extraction
• Loss of biodiversity from habitat conversion
• Water pollution and scarcity from industrial activities
• Climate changes from deforestation and landscape alteration

Contemporary Environmental Justice Movements

Today's indigenous environmental movements continue this tradition of resistance:

• Indigenous-led climate activism
• Legal battles over land rights and resource sovereignty
• Revival of traditional ecological knowledge
• International coalitions defending indigenous environmental stewardship

The land and ecological dimensions of colonial resistance highlight how deeply colonialism disrupted not just human societies but entire socio-ecological systems. For many indigenous peoples, resistance was not merely about political independence but about defending entirely different ways of relating to land and understanding human-nature relationships.

The Role of Law in Colonial Resistance

Law played a complex and multifaceted role in both colonial control and resistance movements. Colonial powers used legal systems as instruments of domination, while resistance movements strategically engaged with, challenged, and created alternative legal frameworks.

Colonial Legal Systems as Tools of Control

Colonial powers established legal frameworks that:

• Created dual legal systems: Separate laws for colonizers and the colonized
• Criminalized traditional practices: Making indigenous customs illegal
• Legitimized land expropriation: Through legal doctrines like terra nullius
• Restricted movement: Pass laws, permits, and registration requirements
• Limited political organization: Laws against assemblies and associations
• Enforced labor extraction: Through vagrancy laws and forced labor codes

Legal Resistance Strategies

Resistance movements used various legal approaches to challenge colonial rule:

Working Within Colonial Legal Systems

• Strategic litigation: Testing and exposing contradictions in colonial law
• Petitioning: Formal appeals highlighting colonial legal hypocrisy
• Rights claims: Invoking the colonizers' own legal principles
• Legal representation: Training indigenous lawyers to navigate colonial courts

Creating Parallel Legal Structures

• Shadow governance: Alternative dispute resolution systems
• Traditional law revival: Maintaining indigenous legal traditions
• Revolutionary courts: Establishing competing judicial authority
• Legal pluralism: Navigating multiple concurrent legal systems

Challenging Colonial Legality

• Civil disobedience: Deliberately breaking unjust laws
• Legal education: Teaching communities about their rights
• International appeals: Taking grievances to global forums
• Constitutional challenges: Questioning the legal foundations of colonial rule

Significant Legal Resistance Examples

India

• Salt March: Gandhi's challenge to the British salt monopoly laws
• Judicial activism: Using British courts to challenge discriminatory practices
• Legislative participation: Working within colonial assemblies while undermining them

Africa

• South African resistance to pass laws and apartheid legislation
• Nigerian women's protests against colonial taxation systems
• Legal challenges to land alienation in Kenya and Zimbabwe

Americas

• Indigenous treaty rights movements in North America
• Constitutional innovations in post-independence Latin America
• Legal pluralism in Bolivia and Ecuador recognizing indigenous law

Post-Colonial Legal Legacies

The struggle over law continued after formal independence:

• Constitutional decolonization: Rewriting foundational legal documents
• Legal system reform: Addressing colonial remnants in criminal codes
• Indigenous rights recognition: Formal acknowledgment of traditional legal systems
• International law engagement: Using global forums to advance decolonization

Theoretical Approaches

Several important frameworks emerged to understand legal resistance:

• Critical legal studies: Examining how law reinforces colonial power
• Legal pluralism: Analyzing the coexistence of multiple legal systems
• Third world approaches to international law (TWAIL): Challenging Eurocentric legal frameworks
• Transitional justice: Addressing colonial legal injustices

The legal dimension of resistance highlights the paradoxical nature of colonial rule - colonizers claimed to bring "the rule of law" while simultaneously creating deeply unjust legal systems. Resistance movements had to navigate this contradiction, sometimes using the colonizers' legal principles against them while simultaneously developing alternative legal frameworks rooted in indigenous traditions and emerging nationalist aspirations.

Religion and Colonial Resistance

Religion played a crucial and multifaceted role in both colonial control and resistance movements. Religious institutions, beliefs, and practices became significant battlegrounds and tools in anti-colonial struggles worldwide.

Colonial Religious Impositions

Colonial powers used religion as a tool of empire:

• Missionary activities: Conversion efforts often linked to colonial expansion
• Suppression of indigenous faiths: Banning traditional ceremonies and spiritual practices
• Religious justifications: Using theological arguments to legitimize colonization
• Church-state cooperation: Religious institutions often supporting colonial administration

Religious Dimensions of Resistance

Colonized peoples used religion in several ways to resist:

Traditional Religious Resistance

• Secret continuation of indigenous religious practices
• Spiritual leaders organizing resistance movements
• Prophetic traditions predicting the end of colonial rule
• Protective rituals believed to offer spiritual defense against colonizers

Syncretism as Resistance

• Blending indigenous and imposed religions to preserve core cultural values
• Reinterpreting Christian narratives to support liberation
• Adapting religious symbols to carry anti-colonial meanings
• Creating new religious movements that combined multiple traditions

Using Colonial Religions Against Colonizers

• Appropriating missionary education for nationalist purposes
• Citing religious texts to challenge colonial contradictions
• Religious-based moral critiques of colonial exploitation
• Building on religious networks for organizing resistance

Notable Religious Resistance Movements

Africa

• Maji Maji Rebellion (Tanzania): United diverse groups through spiritual beliefs in protective water
• Kimbangu movement (Congo): Christian-inspired church that became a vehicle for anti-colonial sentiment
• Mahdist uprising (Sudan): Islamic movement against Egyptian and British control

Asia

• Indian religious nationalism: Both Hindu and Muslim religious identities mobilized against British rule
• Buddhist resistance in various Southeast Asian contexts
• Philippine Iglesia Filipina Independiente: Breaking from Roman Catholic control

Americas

• Ghost Dance movement: Indigenous religious revival predicting the end of colonization
• Rastafarianism: Religious movement challenging colonial thought and celebrating African identity
• Liberation theology: Reinterpreting Christianity to support struggles against oppression

Women and Religious Resistance

Women often played crucial roles in religious resistance:

• Preserving traditional practices within domestic spaces
• Developing women's religious organizations
• Spiritual leadership in contexts where political leadership was restricted
• Using religious authority to challenge both colonial and patriarchal power

Theoretical Frameworks

Several important approaches help analyze religious resistance:

• Theological decolonization: Reclaiming religious interpretations from colonial frameworks
• Religious nationalism: Understanding how religious and national identities intertwined
• Postcolonial religious studies: Examining how religion both supported and subverted colonial power

Religion provided powerful resources for resistance movements: moral frameworks that delegitimized colonial rule, community networks for organizing resistance, symbolic languages for articulating alternative visions, and psychological resilience in the face of oppression. The religious dimension of resistance highlights how deeply colonialism penetrated social life and how resistance had to operate at the level of worldview and belief, not just political or economic structures.

Education in Colonial Resistance

Education was a critical battleground in colonial contexts, functioning both as a tool of colonial control and as a powerful means of resistance. The struggle over knowledge, its production, transmission, and purpose was central to many anti-colonial movements.

Colonial Educational Systems

Colonial powers established educational systems designed to:

• Create subordinate administrators: Training locals for lower-level positions in colonial bureaucracy
• Impose colonial languages: Privileging European languages over indigenous ones
• Teach colonial worldviews: Curricula centered on European history, literature, and values
• Produce cultural alienation: Educating colonized elites to identify with colonial culture
• Limit educational access: Restricting education to create small, manageable elite classes

Educational Resistance Strategies

Resistance to colonial education took multiple forms:

Alternative Educational Institutions

• Indigenous schools: Like the Tuskegee Institute model replicated in various African contexts
• Nationalist schools: Such as the swadeshi schools in India that rejected British curricula
• Religious educational alternatives: Koranic schools, Buddhist monasteries, etc.
• Language preservation schools: Teaching indigenous languages despite prohibitions

Transforming Colonial Education

• "Reading the colonizer's books against them": Using colonial education to develop critique
• Student movements: University students organizing resistance movements
• Curriculum challenges: Demanding inclusion of local history and knowledge
• Teacher activism: Educators subverting official curricula in classrooms

Educational Theory and Practice

• Critical pedagogy: Developing teaching methods that fostered critical consciousness
• Indigenous knowledge recovery: Documenting and teaching traditional knowledge systems
• Decolonial curricula: Creating new educational content centered on local realities
• Adult literacy campaigns: Used for political consciousness-raising

Notable Educational Resistance Examples

Africa

• Julius Nyerere's "Education for Self-Reliance" in Tanzania
• South African resistance education during apartheid
• Guinean efforts under Sékou Touré to Africanize education

Asia

• Tagore's Shantiniketan in India as an alternative to British education
• Vietnamese village schools maintaining national identity under French rule
• Chinese educational reforms challenging Western and Japanese imperialism

Americas and Caribbean

• Historically Black Colleges and Universities as centers of resistance
• Cuban literacy campaigns after independence
• Indigenous education movements in Latin America

Key Figures in Educational Resistance

Several important thinkers developed frameworks for decolonizing education:

• Paulo Freire: Brazilian educator who developed "pedagogy of the oppressed"
• Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o: Kenyan writer advocating for education in indigenous languages
• Frantz Fanon: Analyzed psychological impacts of colonial education
• Rabindranath Tagore: Indian poet and educator who created alternative schools

Post-Independence Educational Challenges

After independence, many nations struggled with:

• Decolonizing curricula: Removing colonial biases from educational content
• Language policy debates: Choosing between colonial, indigenous, or multiple languages
• Educational access expansion: Democratizing previously restricted systems
• Pedagogical innovation: Developing teaching methods appropriate to local contexts

Education was particularly powerful in resistance movements because it addressed both immediate practical needs (training leaders, developing skills) and long-term transformation (changing consciousness, recovering suppressed knowledge). The educational dimension of resistance highlights how colonialism operated not just through physical force but through control of knowledge and consciousness, making educational liberation a central component of broader decolonization struggles.


References on Global Colonial Resistance

Below is a scholarly reference list covering the various dimensions of global colonial resistance:

General Works on Colonial Resistance

• Adas, M. (1992). Prophets of Rebellion: Millenarian Protest Movements against the European Colonial Order. Cambridge University Press.
• Fanon, F. (1963). The Wretched of the Earth. Grove Press.
• Scott, J. C. (1985). Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance. Yale University Press.
• Young, R. J. C. (2001). Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction. Blackwell Publishers.

Economic and Financial Resistance

• Rodney, W. (1972). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Bogle-L'Ouverture Publications.
• Mamdani, M. (1996). Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism. Princeton University Press.
• Davis, M. (2002). Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World. Verso.
• Beckert, S. (2014). Empire of Cotton: A Global History. Alfred A. Knopf.

Cultural Resistance

• Said, E. (1993). Culture and Imperialism. Vintage Books.
• Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o. (1986). Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature. James Currey.
• Pratt, M. L. (1992). Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation. Routledge.
• Bhabha, H. K. (1994). The Location of Culture. Routledge.

Land and Ecological Resistance

• Crosby, A. W. (2004). Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900. Cambridge University Press.
• Grove, R. H. (1995). Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens and the Origins of Environmentalism, 1600-1860. Cambridge University Press.
• Davis, D. K. (2007). Resurrecting the Granary of Rome: Environmental History and French Colonial Expansion in North Africa. Ohio University Press.
• Guha, R. (1989). The Unquiet Woods: Ecological Change and Peasant Resistance in the Himalaya. University of California Press.

Legal Resistance

• Merry, S. E. (2000). Colonizing Hawai'i: The Cultural Power of Law. Princeton University Press.
• Anghie, A. (2005). Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law. Cambridge University Press.
• Benton, L. (2002). Law and Colonial Cultures: Legal Regimes in World History, 1400-1900. Cambridge University Press.
• Hussain, N. (2003). The Jurisprudence of Emergency: Colonialism and the Rule of Law. University of Michigan Press.

Religious Resistance

• Ranger, T. O. (1985). Religious Movements and Politics in Sub-Saharan Africa. African Studies Review.
• Sanneh, L. (1989). Translating the Message: The Missionary Impact on Culture. Orbis Books.
• Peterson, D. (2012). Ethnic Patriotism and the East African Revival: A History of Dissent. Cambridge University Press.
• Comaroff, J., & Comaroff, J. L. (1991). Of Revelation and Revolution, Volume 1: Christianity, Colonialism, and Consciousness in South Africa. University of Chicago Press.

Educational Resistance

• Altbach, P. G., & Kelly, G. P. (Eds.). (1978). Education and Colonialism. Longman.
• Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Continuum.
• Coloma, R. S. (2009). "Postcolonial Challenges in Education." Peter Lang Publishing.
• Willinsky, J. (1998). Learning to Divide the World: Education at Empire's End. University of Minnesota Press.